Jump to content

Parkour

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Le Parkour)

Parkour
An athlete performing parkour
Also known asPK[1][2][3]
FocusObstacle passing
Country of originFrance
Date of formation1980s in the Normandy region of France[4][5]
Creator
Olympic sportNot currently; IOC discussions underway[6]

Parkour (French: [paʁkuʁ]) is an athletic training discipline or sport in which practitioners (called traceurs) attempt to get from one point to another in the fastest and most efficient way possible, without assisting equipment and often while performing feats of acrobatics.[7] With roots in military obstacle course training and martial arts, parkour includes flipping, running, climbing, swinging, vaulting, jumping, plyometrics, rolling, and quadrupedal movement—whatever is suitable for a given situation.[8][9] Parkour is an activity that can be practiced alone or with others, and is usually carried out in urban spaces, though it can be done anywhere.[10][11] It involves seeing one's environment in a new way, and envisioning the potential for navigating it by movement around, across, through, over and under its features.[12][13]

Historically, flips and other acrobatic movements were not considered essential to the discipline of parkour,[14] and the term freerunning was applied to parkour-like movement that emphasized artistry rather than efficiency. However, as the parkour culture evolved, its distinction from freerunning became increasingly blurred. Today, parkour athletes broadly agree that flips are unambiguously part of parkour.[15]

Parkour was established by David Belle in the 1980s, and it was initially called l'art du déplacement;[16][17][18] however the name "le parcours" had already been given to the activity by 1989.[5] The discipline was popularised in the 1990s and 2000s through films, documentaries, video games, and advertisements.[16][19][20] Similar techniques were known from French military obstacle courses,[16] and some authors see influence from Hong Kong cinema and Asian martial arts in Parkour.[21][22]

Etymology

[edit]

The word parkour derives from parcours du combattant (Obstacle course), the classic obstacle course method of military training proposed by Georges Hébert.[23][24][25] Raymond Belle used the term "les parcours" to encompass all of his training including climbing, jumping, running, balancing, and the other methods he undertook in his personal athletic advancement.[26] His son, David, further developed his father's methods and achieved success as a stuntman, and one day on a film set showed his 'Speed Air Man' video to Hubert Koundé. Koundé suggested he change the "c" of "parcours" to a "k" because it was stronger and more dynamic, and to remove the silent "s" for the same reason, forming "parkour".[27]

According to Sebastien Foucan, the activity had already been given the name "le parcours" by the year 1989.[5]

A practitioner of parkour is called a traceur, with the feminine form being traceuse or simply a "Parkourist".[8] They are nouns derived from the French verb tracer, which normally means "to trace", as in "tracing a path", in reference to drawing.[28] The verb tracer used familiarly means: "to hurry up".[29] The term traceur was originally the name of a parkour group headed by David Belle which included Sébastien Foucan and Stéphane Vigroux.[30]

A jam refers to a meeting of traceurs, involving training lasting anywhere from hours to several days, often with people from different cities. The first parkour jam was organised in July 2002 by Romain Drouet, with a dozen people including Sébastien Foucan and Stéphane Vigroux.

History

[edit]

Origins

[edit]

The practice of similar techniques existed in French military obstacle courses and Hong Kong cinema.[16][21][22] A similar discipline in Chinese culture is qinggong, a Chinese martial arts training technique, most famously practiced by Jackie Chan.[21][22]

Georges Hébert

[edit]
Georges Hébert (1875–1957)

In Western Europe, a forerunner of parkour was developed by French naval officer Georges Hébert, who before World War I promoted athletic skill based on the models of indigenous tribes he had met in Africa.[31] He noted, "their bodies were splendid, flexible, nimble, skillful, enduring, and resistant but yet they had no other tutor in gymnastics but their lives in nature."[31] His rescue efforts during the 1902 eruption of Mount Pelée on Saint-Pierre, Martinique reinforced his belief that athletic skill must be combined with courage and altruism.[31] Hébert became a physical education tutor at the college of Reims in France. Hébert set up a "méthode naturelle" (natural method) session consisting of ten fundamental groups: walking, running, jumping, quadrupedal movement, climbing, balancing, throwing, lifting, self-defence, and swimming. These were intended to develop "the three main forces": energetic (willpower, courage, coolness, and firmness), moral (benevolence, assistance, honour, and honesty), and physical (muscles and breath).[32] During World War I and World War II, teaching continued to expand, becoming the standard system of French military education and training. Inspired by Hébert, a Swiss architect developed a "parcours du combattant"[33]—military obstacle course—the first of the courses that are now standard in military training and which led to the development of civilian fitness trails and confidence courses.[31]

John Ciampa

[edit]

Born in 1922, John Ciampa was acrobatic stuntman and entertainer known by the stage names of the Human Fly, the Flying Phantom and the Brooklyn Tarzan whose acrobatic buildering and freestyle tree climbing bear striking resemblance to late 20th Century parkour. Those feats were featured in two 1942 Paramount Pictures newsreels[34][35] coincident with the release of the feature film Tarzan's New York Adventure.

Raymond and David Belle

[edit]

Born in 1939 in Vietnam, Raymond Belle was the son of a French physician and Vietnamese mother. During the First Indochina War, his father died and he was separated from his mother, after which he was sent to a military orphanage in Da Lat at the age of seven. He took it upon himself to train harder and longer than everyone else in order never to be a victim. At night, when everyone else was asleep, he would be outside running or climbing trees. He would use the military obstacle courses in secret, and also created courses of his own that tested his endurance, strength, and flexibility. Doing this enabled him not only to survive the hardships he experienced during his childhood, but also eventually to thrive. After the Battle of Dien Bien Phu in 1954, he returned to France and remained in military education until the age of 19, when he joined the Paris Fire Brigade, a French Army unit.[16][36][37]

David Belle is considered the founder of parkour.

Raymond's son, David Belle, was born in 1973. He experimented with gymnastics and athletics but became increasingly disaffected with both school and the sports clubs. As he got older, he learned of his father's exploits and was increasingly curious about what had enabled his father to accomplish these feats. Through conversations with his father, he realised that what he really wanted was a means to develop skills that would be useful to him in life, rather than just training to kick a ball or perform moves in a padded, indoor environment.[16][26]

Through conversations with his father, David learned about this way of training that his father called "parcours". He heard his father talk of the many repetitions he had done in order to find the best way of doing things. He learned that for his father, training was not a game but something vital which enabled him to survive and to protect the people he cared about. David realised that this was what he had been searching for, and so he began training in the same way. After a time, he found it far more important to him than schooling and he gave up his other commitments to focus all his time on his training.[26]

Yamakasi

[edit]

David initially trained on his own, and after moving to Lisses, found other young men (including his cousins) who had similar desires, and they began to train together.[1] The group eventually included David Belle, Sébastien Foucan, Châu Belle Dinh, Williams Belle, Yann Hnautra, Laurent Piemontesi, Guylain N'Guba Boyeke, Malik Diouf, and Charles Perrière. The group began calling themselves the Yamakasi, from the Lingala ya makási, meaning strong in one's person, or "strong man, strong spirit"[38] (see § Name and split below).

Some members of the group drew inspiration from Asian martial arts, notably the acrobatics of Jackie Chan such as qinggong displays in his Hong Kong action films,[21][39][22] and the training philosophy of Bruce Lee,[40] The group also was influenced by the martial arts films of Belgian actor Jean-Claude Van Damme.[22]

Discipline

[edit]

The group put themselves through challenges that forced them to find the physical and mental strength to succeed. Examples included training without food or water, or sleeping on the floor without a blanket to learn to endure the cold.[41] For example, no one in the group was permitted to be late for training, as it would hold back the whole group. If any member completed a challenge, everyone else had to do the same thing.[42] During their training, no one was allowed to complain or be negative. Few excuses were allowed. For instance, if someone claimed that his shoes were too worn out in to make a jump, he had to do it anyway, even if it meant doing the jump barefoot.[43] At the same time, everyone was required to have knowledge of their own limits.[44]

Respecting one's health and physical well-being was one of the foundations of the group. If any member hurt himself during or after the execution of a movement, the movement was deemed a failure. A movement executed only once was not considered an achievement; only with repetition was the challenge complete. Every movement had to be repeated at least ten times in a row without the traceur having to push his limits or sustaining any injury. If any mistake was made by any traceur in the group everyone had to start all over again.[42]

Humility was an important principle.[44] No traceur was allowed to feel superior to someone else, for example, by executing a movement only to show off in front of someone who could not perform the movement. If any traceur in the group claimed that he had completed a difficult and dangerous challenge that should not be attempted unaided, he had to prove his claims by doing the challenge again. Anyone who lied violated the principle of humility.[42]

To join the group, new members had to be recommended by an existing member and then pass tests to evaluate their motivation for joining.[43] Despite the huge emphasis on the collective, each traceur had to progress and develop independently—"to create the means to be yourself"[45]—and there was a complete trust within the group.[44] Every traceur was to encourage the others and show confidence through their behaviour.[46] If a member violated the principles, the group could meet without the offending person to discuss various punishments. Anyone deemed unsuitable could be temporarily or even permanently banned from the group in order to uphold its disciplines and values.[47]

Name and split

[edit]

In 1997, David Belle's brother Jean-François invited the group to perform for the public in a firefighter show in Paris.[38] For the performance, the group named themselves Yamakasi, from the Congolese Lingala ya makási, meaning strong in one's person, or "strong man, strong spirit". Sébastien Foucan also invented a name for what they were doing: "l'art du déplacement" (French for "the art of movement").[38] The firefighter performance caused both positive and negative attention. Some members of the group were concerned how the public would view their discipline since the performance did not demonstrate all aspects of it, such as their hard training and their values and ethics. Jean-François also sent pictures and video of the group to a French TV programme, and the popularity of parkour began to increase. A series of television programmes in various countries subsequently featured video footage of the group, and they began to get more requests for performances. During this time, conflicting interests arose within the group. Sébastien Foucan wanted to teach more rather than to train more, and David Belle had the ambition to become an actor. David and Sébastien chose to leave the group, and used the name "parkour" to describe their activity (see § Etymology above). The seven remaining Yamakasi members continued to use the term l'art du déplacement[16][48] (see § Derivative terminologies and disciplines below).

Organizations

[edit]

International parkour organizations include the World Freerunning and Parkour Federation, established in 2007, who have worked with MTV to produce parkour-related shows.[49]

Philosophy

[edit]
A beginner takes a leap in Seattle's Freeway Park under the guidance of experienced practitioners (2012).

According to Williams Belle, the philosophies and theories behind parkour are an integral aspect of the art, one that many non-practitioners have never been exposed to. Belle says he trains people because he wants it "to be alive" and "for people to use it".[50] Châu Belle explains it is a "type of freedom" or "kind of expression"; that parkour is "only a state of mind" rather than a set of actions, and that it is about overcoming and adapting to mental and emotional obstacles as well as physical barriers.[50] Traceur Dylan Baker says, "Parkour also influences one's thought processes by enhancing self-confidence and critical thinking skills that allow one to overcome everyday physical and mental obstacles".[50][51][52] A study by Neuropsychiatrie de l'Enfance et de l'Adolescence (Neuropsychiatry of Childhood and Adolescence) in France found traceurs seek more excitement and leadership situations than gymnasts do.[53]

Academic research on parkour has tended to describe how parkour provides a novel way of interacting with the urban environment that challenges the use and meaning of urban space, metropolitan life, and embodiment.[54]

A newer convention of parkour philosophy has been the idea of "human reclamation".[55] Andy Tran of Urban Evolution clarifies it as "a means of reclaiming what it means to be a human being. It teaches us to move using the natural methods that we should have learned from infancy. It teaches us to touch the world and interact with it, instead of being sheltered by it."[55] Another traceur[who?] writes, "It is as much as a part of truly learning the physical art as well as being able to master the movements; it gives you the ability to overcome your fears and pains and reapply this to life, as you must be able to control your mind in order to master the art of parkour."[56]

Competition

[edit]

A campaign was started on 1 May 2007 by the Parkour.NET portal to preserve parkour's philosophy against sports competition and rivalry.[57][58] In the words of Erwan Le Corre, "Competition pushes people to fight against others for the satisfaction of a crowd and/or the benefits of a few business people by changing its mindset. Parkour is unique and cannot be a competitive sport unless it ignores its altruistic core of self-development. If parkour becomes a sport, it will be hard to seriously teach and spread parkour as a non-competitive activity. And a new sport will be spread that may be called parkour, but that won't hold its philosophical essence anymore."[57] Red Bull's sponsored athlete for parkour, Ryan Doyle, has said, "Sometimes people ask, 'Who is the best at parkour?' and it is because they don't understand what Parkour is; 'Who is the best?' is what you would say about a sport, and parkour is not a sport—it is an art, it's a discipline. That's like saying, 'What's the best song in the world?'"[59] This seems to be the consensus among many professional traceurs who view parkour as a lifestyle more than as a set of tricks, as has been popularised by YouTube and most media exposure.[citation needed]

There are competitions that use parkour as the main influence for formatting and judging criteria. Sport Parkour League's "North America Parkour Championships" hosts a series of local and regional qualifier events which culminate in a final event in Vancouver, B.C.[60] Red Bull's Art of Motion event[61] is the longest running and highest profile professional freerunning competition.

David Belle

[edit]

In his 2009 book Parkour, David Belle stressed that the most important aspect of parkour is not the physical movements, but rather the practitioner's mentality and understanding of its principles. "When young trainees come to see me and give me videos telling me to check out what they are doing, I just take the tape and throw it away. What I'm interested in is what the guy's got in his head, if he has self-confidence, if he masters the technique, if he has understood the principles of parkour. I just can't deal with guys who do Parkour because they saw videos on the Internet and thought it was kinda cool and want to do even better."[62] Further, he states the importance of traceurs being aware of their abilities and limitations, and developing in their own way. "When a young person asks me, 'Can you show me how to do this?' I simply answer, ‘No, I am going to show you how I do it. Then, you'll have to learn with your own technique, your own way of moving, your style, your abilities and your limitations. You are going to learn to be yourself, not someone else along the way.’"[63]

The philosophy of parkour has been compared to that of martial arts.[64] In an interview with The New Yorker, David Belle acknowledges the influence, "There's a quote by Bruce Lee that's my motto: 'There are no limits. There are plateaus, but you must not stay there, you must go beyond them. A man must constantly exceed his level.' If you're not better than you were the day before, then what are you doing—what's the point?"[33] In an interview with the press, Belle explained that parkour is a training method for warriors. "So many people try to train easy—'Come do parkour! It's really cool!' But if tomorrow I made you do real training, you would end up crying. That's what you need to know: you are going to cry, you are going to bleed and you are going to sweat like never before."[65] In his book, Belle also quotes his father Raymond, "If two roads open up before you, always take the most difficult one. Because you know you can travel the easy one."[66]

Belle is an influential proponent of discipline and control in parkour, saying, "Precision is all about being measured," and going on to describe parkour as an art that requires huge amounts of repetition and practice to master.[67] "With parkour, I often say, 'Once is never'. In other words, someone can manage a jump one time but it does not mean anything. It can be luck or chance. When you make a jump, you have to do it at least three times to be sure you can actually do it. It's an unavoidable rule. Do it the hard way and stop lying to yourself. When you come for training, you have to train. Even if it means doing the same jump fifty or a hundred times."[63] To its founder, parkour is a method of self-refinement, used for learning to control and focus oneself.

Practice

[edit]

Movement

[edit]
A practitioner performing a wall run

While there is no official list of "moves" in parkour, the style in which practitioners move often sets them apart from others,[9] and there are a number of named movements that are characteristic,[17] for example:[68][69][70]

  • "Parkour roll": Rolling to absorb impacts from larger drops, moving diagonally over a shoulder to convert momentum from vertical to horizontal.
  • "Precision jump": Jumping and landing accurately with the feet on small or narrow obstacles.
  • "Arm jump": Jumping and landing feet-first on a vertical surface, catching the horizontal top with the hands.
  • "Wall run": Running toward a high wall and then jumping and pushing off the wall with a foot to reach the top of the wall.
  • "Climb up": Moving from a position hanging from a wall-top or ledge, to standing on the top or vaulting over to the other side.

Equipment

[edit]
A traceuse vaults a railing.

Parkour is practiced without traditional equipment, though items such as bars, walls, and boxes found in the environment in which the parkour is being practiced in, are utilised to better navigate the area. Practitioners normally train wearing light, non-restrictive casual clothing.[71][72] Traceurs who wear gloves are rare—bare hands are considered better for grip and tactile feedback.[73][74] Light running shoes with good grip and flexibility are encouraged because they allow for more natural and fluid movements. Practitioners often use minimalist shoes, sometimes as a progression to bare feet, for better sensitivity and balance, while others prefer more cushioning for better absorption of impacts from large jumps.[75] Barefoot training is done by some for movement competency without gear—David Belle noted that "bare feet are the best shoes."[76] Various sneaker manufacturers have developed shoes specifically for parkour and freerunning. Many other companies around the world have started offering clothing targeted at parkour.[77]

Risks

[edit]

Trespassing

[edit]
Traceurs in Lisses re-painting a wall and repairing shoe scuff marks from parkour
A notice on a wall of the Strasbourg Museum of Modern and Contemporary Art in 2012 prohibiting parkour (removed in 2018)

Parkour is not widely practiced in dedicated public facilities. Although efforts are being made to create places for it, many traceurs do not like the idea, as it is contradictory to parkour's values of adaptation, creativity, and freedom.[78] Traceurs practice parkour in both rural and urban areas such as gyms, parks, playgrounds, offices, and abandoned structures. Concerns have been raised regarding trespassing, damage of property,[79] and use of inappropriate places such as cemeteries.[80] Many parkour organizations around the globe support the Leave No Trace initiative, an urban version of the outdoor conservation ethic created by the Seattle nonprofit Parkour Visions in 2008, promoting safety, respect for the spaces used and their other users, and sometimes includes picking up rubbish to leave areas in better condition than they were found.[81][82][83][84][85]

Injuries and deaths

[edit]

Concerns have been raised by law enforcement and fire and rescue teams about the risks inherent in jumping off high buildings.[86] They argue that practitioners are needlessly risking damage to both themselves and rooftops by practicing at height, with police forces calling for practitioners to stay off the rooftops.[79][87][88] Some practitioners of parkour agree that such behaviour should be discouraged.[87][89][90][91]

Because parkour philosophy is about learning to control oneself in interaction with the environment, many parkour experts consider serious injury evidence of the traceur's failure to follow the precepts of the discipline, specifically, knowing one's limitations. Daniel Ilabaca, co-founder of the World Parkour and Freerunning Federation, said, "Thinking you're going to fail at something gives you a higher risk of doing just that. Committing to something you're thinking or knowing you will land gives you a higher chance of landing or completing the task."[92] On biomechanical grounds, studies found parkour landing techniques result in lower landing forces in comparison with traditional sport techniques.[93][94] In a survey of parkour-related emergency department visits in the United States between 2009 and 2015, most injuries were reportedly caused by landing or from striking objects.[95]

American traceur Mark Toorock said injuries are rare "because participants rely not on what they can't control—wheels or the icy surfaces of snowboarding and skiing—but their own hands and feet." Lanier Johnson, executive director of the American Sports Medicine Institute, said that many of the injuries are not reported.[96]

Impact

[edit]

Initially featured in films of French director/producer Luc Besson, parkour was first introduced to the British public by the BBC One TV channel trailer Rush Hour in April 2002. It featured David Belle leaping across London's rooftops from his office to home, in an attempt to catch his favourite BBC programme,[97] and captured the imagination of many viewers, especially when they learned no special effects or wires were used.[4] This advertisement, along with others for Coca-Cola, Nike, and Toyota, had a large-scale impact on public awareness of parkour.[17][98]

The creation of parkour show-reels and documentaries has been crucial to the spread of parkour, and is common in the parkour community.[16][48] Jump London is a 2003 documentary explaining some of the background of parkour, culminating with Sébastien Foucan, Johann Vigroux, and Jérôme Ben Aoues demonstrating their parkour skills. Jump London changed the presence of parkour in the UK almost overnight and is widely credited for inspiring a new generation of traceurs.[54] It was followed by Jump Britain in 2005. Both Jump films were shown in more than 80 countries, thereby introducing the discipline and its philosophy to an unprecedented global audience. Both films have been cited by numerous practitioners as their motivation for taking up the discipline.

The Australian version of 60 Minutes broadcast a segment about parkour on 16 September 2007, featuring Foucan and Stephane Vigroux.[99]

Parkour is not defined by a set of rules or guidelines, a feature which has proven particularly attractive to young people, allowing them to explore and engage in the activity on their own terms. It can be easily accepted by all cultures as a means of personal expression and recreation.[100] For example, in 2010 The New York Times published a short video featuring three young men from the Gaza Strip who were active members of the parkour community.[101] In 2014, the BBC covered youth parkour participation in Jammu and Kashmir. Zahid Shah founded the Kashmir Freerunning and Parkour Federation, finding hope in the non-violent discipline of parkour.[102]

Entertainment

[edit]

Parkour has become a popular element in action sequences, with film directors hiring parkour practitioners as stunt performers. The first director to do so was Luc Besson, for the film Taxi 2 in 1998, followed by Yamakasi in 2001 featuring members of the original Yamakasi group, and its sequel Les fils du vent in 2004. Also in 2004, Besson wrote District 13, another feature film involving advanced parkour chase sequences, starring David Belle and Cyril Raffaelli,[103][104] followed by the sequel District 13: Ultimatum in 2009 and remade in English as Brick Mansions in 2014.

In 2006 the James Bond film Casino Royale featured Sébastien Foucan in a chase taking place early in the movie, sparking renewed media interest in parkour.[33] Along with The Bourne Ultimatum (2007), Casino Royale is credited with starting a new wave of Parkour-inspired stunts in Western film and television.[105] Parkour was prominent in Live Free or Die Hard (2007),[106] again with stuntman/actor Cyril Raffaelli, and Prince of Persia: The Sands of Time (2010), choreographed by David Belle.[107] Several films besides Yamakasi are about thieves who use parkour, such as Breaking and Entering (2006),[103][104] Run (2013),[108] and Tracers (2015). The 2011 film Freerunner is about eight freerunners racing through a city for survival. The 2019 Netflix film 6 Underground featured several parkour scenes choreographed and performed by team Storror.[109][110] Parkour also featured in Dhoom 3 (2013),[111] Bang Bang! (2014) and Aadhi (2018).[112]

Parkour is also featured on TV. MTV's show Ultimate Parkour Challenge premiered as a one-hour special in October 2009 starring the athletes of the World Freerunning & Parkour Federation. This was followed in May 2010 with a six-episode series of the same name. The athletes were Daniel Ilabaca, Tim Shieff, Ryan Doyle, Michael Turner, Oleg Vorslav, Ben Jenkin, Daniel Arroyo, Pip Andersen and King David. The programme format was a two-part weekly competition in different Southern California locations.[113]

Professional wrestler John Hennigan is a long-time practitioner of parkour and often incorporates it into his wrestling style, with the WWE giving him the nickname "The Prince of Parkour".[114][115] Actor Stephen Amell learned parkour at Tempest Academy in preparation for his role as Oliver Queen in the television series Arrow,[116] and co-star Caity Lotz is also a practitioner.[117]

Modern video games frequently include aspects of parkour as major game-play elements. Since the series' inception, Tomb Raider series has included increasingly numerous parkour elements.[118] The Assassin's Creed series also makes heavy use of parkour movement (called freerunning in the game).[119][120][121] The Mirror's Edge games are heavily inspired by parkour, consisting entirely of efficiently moving around buildings, rooftops, and other obstacles.[122][123] Brink introduced a parkour mechanic into a realistic first-person shooter.[124] Prince of Persia and Dying Light include a central parkour mechanic,[125][126] while Crackdown and Crackdown 2 include an emphasis on gripping and vaulting from ledges and protruding objects.[127] Tony Hawk's American Wasteland allows the character to use several freerunning techniques while not on the skateboard.[128] Tron Evolution's basic movements and combat were based on parkour and capoeira.[129]

Military training

[edit]

Although parkour itself grew out of military obstacle-course training,[16][36] it has become a separate discipline. After the attention that parkour received following the 2006 film Casino Royale, military forces around the world began looking for ways to incorporate elements from parkour into military training. A physical trainer with the Royal Marines trained with parkour practitioners with hopes of introducing some of their techniques to his own students.[130] Colorado Parkour began a project to introduce elements from parkour into the U.S. military[131] and one San Diego staff sergeant trained US Marines in parkour.[132]

Scientific research and applications

[edit]

Studies have found that in exercises such as the standing long jump, depth jump, and vertical jump, parkour athletes outperform physical educators,[citation needed] gymnasts, and power athletes.[133] Parkour training is especially linked with the development of eccentric load resistance and jumping ability.

A study into the mechanics of the standing long jump showed that experienced traceurs use a lower take off angle than beginners (~25.6° vs ~34°).[134] Wakai and Linthorne had previously estimated the optimal angle to be close to 22.6°.[135]

Studies and experiments have integrated parkour kinaesthetics into robotics.[136][137][138][139]

Derivative terminologies and disciplines

[edit]

In September 2003, Mike Christie's documentary Jump London, starring Sébastien Foucan, was released. In the documentary, the term "freerunning" was used as an attempt to translate "parkour", in order to make it more appealing to the English-speaking audience.[140] Foucan decided to keep using the term "freerunning" to describe his discipline, to distinguish it from David Belle's methods.[141][142]

The remaining seven Yamakasi members continued to use the term "l'art du déplacement", also not wanting to associate it too closely with parkour. Similar to Sébastien's freerunning, l'art du déplacement is less about the hard discipline of the original Yamakasi group; rather, it takes a participatory approach focused on making the teaching more accessible. David Belle kept the term "parkour", saying the group contributed to the development of it, but that his father was the source of his motivation and had verbally communicated this method only to him.[142]

Both parkour and freerunning encompass the ideas of overcoming obstacles and self-expression; in freerunning, the greater emphasis is on self-expression.[141] Although the differences between the disciplines are often hard to discern, practitioners tend to aspire to parkour and describe themselves as traceurs rather than as freerunners.[143]

See also

[edit]

Citations

[edit]
  1. ^ a b "Actor David Belle Biography". David Belle. Archived from the original on 20 October 2014. Retrieved 22 May 2014.
  2. ^ "3RUN Story". 3run.co.uk. 6 December 2012. Archived from the original on 6 March 2014. Retrieved 22 May 2014.
  3. ^ "About the Tapp Brothers". LearnMoreParkour.com. Archived from the original on 31 March 2014. Retrieved 22 May 2014.
  4. ^ a b "BBC film's rooftop stunts 'real'". BBC News. 19 April 2002. Archived from the original on 8 December 2015. Retrieved 2 December 2015.
  5. ^ a b c Gerling, Ilona E.; Pach, Alexander; Witfeld, Jan (15 November 2013). The Ultimate Parkour & Freerunning Book: Discover your possibilities. Meyer & Meyer Verlag. p. 23. ISBN 978-1-78255-020-4.
  6. ^ "Parkour – A Young Sport with Olympic Ambitions". European Olympic Committees. 24 August 2016. Archived from the original on 26 October 2016. Retrieved 15 December 2021.
  7. ^ "parkour". Dictionary.com Unabridged (Online). n.d.
  8. ^ a b Ferrari, Matthew (7 May 2010). "From 'Play to Display': Parkour as Media-Mimetics or Nature Reclamation?". FlowTV, vol 11, lokaliseret den 01-04-2011 på. Archived from the original on 5 November 2019. Retrieved 16 January 2020.
  9. ^ a b De Feitas, Elizabeth (2011). "Parkour and the Built Environment: Spatial Practices and the Plasticity of School Buildings". Journal of Curriculum Theorizing. 27 (3): 209. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 1 March 2015.
  10. ^ Rawlinson, Christopher; Guaralda, Mirko (11 September 2012). "Chaos and creativity of play: designing emotional engagement in public spaces". In Out of Control: 8th International Conference on Design and Emotion. Central Saint Martins College of Arts and Design, London. ISBN 9780957071926. Archived from the original on 14 May 2013. Retrieved 16 March 2013.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  11. ^ Brunner, C. (2010). "Nice-looking obstacles: Parkour as urban practice of deterritorialization" (PDF). AI & Society. 26 (2): 143–152. doi:10.1007/s00146-010-0294-2. ISSN 0951-5666. S2CID 11017425. Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 August 2020. Retrieved 11 June 2019.
  12. ^ Rawlinson, Christopher; Guaralda, Mirko (27 April 2011), "Play in the city: Parkour and architecture", The First International Postgraduate Conference on Engineering, Designing and Developing the Built Environment for Sustainable Wellbeing, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia, ISBN 9780980582741, archived from the original on 14 May 2013, retrieved 16 March 2013{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  13. ^ Ameel, L.; Tani, S. (2012). "Everyday aesthetics in action: Parkour Eyes and the beauty of concrete walls". Emotion, Space and Society. 5 (3): 164–173. doi:10.1016/j.emospa.2011.09.003.
  14. ^ Kidder, Jeffrey (2017). Parkour and the City. New Jersey: Rutgers University Press. p. 146. ISBN 978-0813571980. "flips: ... "However they are usually designated as a part of freerunning, not of Parkour."
  15. ^ STORROR PODCAST (4 December 2024). SP90 - Gymnast Wins Parkour World Championships, New Storror Shoes | PPP21. Retrieved 6 December 2024 – via YouTube.
  16. ^ a b c d e f g h i Angel, pp. 17–20
  17. ^ a b c "Parkour History". Parkour Generations. 22 August 2014. Archived from the original on 8 December 2015. Retrieved 2 December 2015.
  18. ^ "Interview with David Belle". YouTube. 20 January 2009. Archived from the original on 14 December 2015. Retrieved 2 December 2015.
  19. ^ Belle, David (2006). "Entrevista com David Belle (OSRAM 2006)" [Interview with David Belle (OSRAM 2006)] (Interview). Archived from the original on 8 July 2013. Retrieved 10 February 2013.
  20. ^ Atkinson, M. (2009). "Parkour, Anarcho-Environmentalism, and Poiesis". Journal of Sport & Social Issues. 33 (2): 169–194. doi:10.1177/0193723509332582. S2CID 146783270.
  21. ^ a b c d Stratford, Elaine (2014). Geographies, Mobilities, and Rhythms over the Life-Course: Adventures in the Interval. Routledge. p. 79. ISBN 978-1135117429. Archived from the original on 3 June 2020. Retrieved 14 March 2019.
  22. ^ a b c d e Angel, Julie (16 June 2016). Breaking the Jump: The Secret Story of Parkour's High Flying Rebellion. Aurum Press. ISBN 978-1-78131-554-5. Archived from the original on 2 July 2021. Retrieved 27 March 2021.
  23. ^ Russell, Matthew. "English welcome – Parkour Worldwide Association". Archived from the original on 8 May 2005. Retrieved 12 May 2007.
  24. ^ "PAWA statement on Freerunning". 23 February 2006. Archived from the original on 27 September 2007. Retrieved 12 May 2007.
  25. ^ "The name Parkour, simple question". Archived from the original on 27 September 2007. Retrieved 12 April 2007.
  26. ^ a b c Belle, pp. 31–70
  27. ^ Angel, p. 37.
  28. ^ "Portail lexical – Définition de tracer" (in French). Archived from the original on 18 August 2011. Retrieved 28 August 2007.
  29. ^ (Populaire) Filer, se dépêcher. or to run (go) fast (to leave in a hurry) → (intransitive, informal) to leave, to get going, (reflexive) to haste, to hurry up(idiomatic, dated) Hurry up; make haste.
  30. ^ "An Interview With Stephane Vigroux". 27 January 2009. Archived from the original on 30 October 2021. Retrieved 22 May 2014 – via YouTube.
  31. ^ a b c d Artful Dodger. "Georges Hebert and the Natural Method of Physical Culture". Archived from the original on 23 March 2005. Retrieved 2 July 2013.
  32. ^ "Georges Hébert – la methode naturalle" (in French). INSEP – Musée de la Marine. Archived from the original (JPG) on 18 July 2006. Retrieved 22 September 2007.
  33. ^ a b c Wilkinson, Alec (16 April 2007). "No Obstacles". The New Yorker. Archived from the original on 11 October 2007. Retrieved 14 October 2007.
  34. ^ "1942 Paramount Pictures Newsreel 1 – 1942 Paramount Pictures Newsreel 1". 21 July 2014. Retrieved 11 October 2023.
  35. ^ "1942 Paramount Pictures Newsreel 2 – 1942 Paramount Pictures Newsreel 2". 21 July 2014. Retrieved 11 October 2023.
  36. ^ a b Belle, pp. 23–30
  37. ^ "Raymond Belle's biography". Original French biography sourced from 'Allo Dix-Huit', the magazine of the Parisian pompiers. Parkour.NET. 17 February 2006. Archived from the original on 17 February 2006. Retrieved 29 November 2007.
  38. ^ a b c Angel, p. 35.
  39. ^ Hunt, Leon; Wing-Fai, Leung (2010). East Asian Cinemas: Exploring Transnational Connections on Film. I.B. Tauris. ISBN 978-0857712271. Archived from the original on 3 June 2020. Retrieved 14 March 2019.
  40. ^ "Parkour History". Parkour Generations. Archived from the original on 31 May 2019. Retrieved 13 March 2019.
  41. ^ Angel, p. 23
  42. ^ a b c Belle and Perriére, p. 43
  43. ^ a b Belle and Perriére, p. 42
  44. ^ a b c Belle and Perriére, p. 46
  45. ^ Belle and Perriére, p. 53
  46. ^ Belle and Perriére, p. 47
  47. ^ Belle and Perriére, p. 44
  48. ^ a b Belle, pp. 71–79
  49. ^ History of WFPF Archived 14 July 2018 at the Wayback Machine wfpf.com
  50. ^ a b c Belle, Châu; Belle, Williams; Hnautra, Yann and Daniels, Mark (director). Generation Yamakasi (TV-Documentary) (in French). France: France 2. Retrieved 25 August 2007.
  51. ^ Mai, Jeffy (14 April 2008). "Students on campus are mastering parkour, an art of self-awareness and body control". Archived from the original on 25 September 2010. Retrieved 19 April 2008.
  52. ^ Kalteis, Andreas (2006). Parkour Journeys – Training with Andi (DVD). London: Catsnake Studios.
  53. ^ Cazenave, N. (2007). "La pratique du parkour chez les adolescents des banlieues: Entre recherche de sensation et renforcement narcissique". Neuropsychiatrie de l'Enfance et de l'Adolescence. 55 (3): 154–159. doi:10.1016/j.neurenf.2007.02.001.
  54. ^ a b Gilchrist, Paul; Wheaton, Belinda (30 July 2012). Hutchins/Rowe (ed.). New Media Technologies in Lifestyle Sport. Digital Media Sport: Technology and Power in the Network Society. Archived from the original on 10 January 2022. Retrieved 8 September 2013.
  55. ^ a b "Two Theories on Parkour Philosophy". Parkour North America. 7 September 2007. Archived from the original on 12 July 2012. Retrieved 16 April 2008.
  56. ^ "Parkour History". Urban discipline. Archived from the original on 17 July 2011. Retrieved 5 January 2015.
  57. ^ a b "Keeping parkour rivalry-free : JOIN IN !". Parkour.NET. 1 May 2007. Archived from the original on 13 July 2007. Retrieved 11 May 2007.
  58. ^ Bignell, Paul; Sharp, Rob (22 April 2007). "'Jumped-up' plan to stage world competition sees free runners falling out". The Independent. London. Archived from the original on 1 January 2008.
  59. ^ "Ryan Doyle – Parkour Training Jam". 28 October 2010. Archived from the original on 30 October 2021. Retrieved 22 May 2014 – via YouTube.
  60. ^ "Sport Parkour | Parkour Competitions | NAPC". Archived from the original on 7 August 2020. Retrieved 24 June 2020.
  61. ^ "Series Stops". www.redbull.com. Archived from the original on 26 June 2020. Retrieved 24 June 2020.
  62. ^ Belle, p. 58
  63. ^ a b Belle, p. 59
  64. ^ Green, Rob. "Bruce Lee and the Philosophy of Parkour". WorldWideJam.tv. Archived from the original on 23 July 2011. Retrieved 1 February 2011.
  65. ^ Cine parkour, p. 22
  66. ^ Belle, p. 27
  67. ^ "David Belle – Parkour". 16 July 2011. Archived from the original on 30 October 2021. Retrieved 22 May 2014 – via YouTube.
  68. ^ Murray, Joseph B (2010), Knowing Obstacles: Urban Dialogues in Parkour Practice (PDF) (Doctoral dissertation), Central European University, archived (PDF) from the original on 13 December 2013, retrieved 16 March 2013{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  69. ^ McLean, C. R.; Houshian, S.; Pike, J. (2006). "Paediatric fractures sustained in Parkour (free running)". Injury. 37 (8): 795–797. doi:10.1016/j.injury.2006.04.119. PMID 16806217.
  70. ^ Chow, B. D. V. (2010). "Parkour and the critique of ideology: Turn-vaulting the fortresses of the city". Journal of Dance and Somatic Practices. 2 (2): 143–154. doi:10.1386/jdsp.2.2.143_1.
  71. ^ "What Should I Wear for parkour?". americanparkour.com. 6 November 2005. Archived from the original on 3 February 2009. Retrieved 21 April 2007.
  72. ^ "Is there any equipment cost, membership fee, or exclusive conditions required for my child to do Parkour?" (PDF). washingtonparkour.com. 2008. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 March 2010. Retrieved 4 April 2008.
  73. ^ Arnold, Tiffany (28 September 2009). "Parkour: All in a day's training". Herald Mail. Archived from the original on 3 February 2014. Retrieved 25 July 2010.
  74. ^ Money-Coutts, Sophia (23 February 2009). "You might as well jump". The National. Abu Dhabi Media Company. Archived from the original on 26 February 2009. Retrieved 25 July 2010.
  75. ^ "10 Best Parkour Shoes (2020) – Freerunning Shoes Reviewed". ParkourShoesGuide. 11 June 2017. Archived from the original on 22 October 2019. Retrieved 19 June 2017.
  76. ^ "David Belle – Parkour simples". YouTube. 16 March 2007. Archived from the original on 30 October 2021. Retrieved 7 July 2007.
  77. ^ "Know Obstacles". Archived from the original on 13 May 2014. Retrieved 12 May 2014.
  78. ^ "American Parkour HotSpots Contest". 21 May 2008. Archived from the original on 14 April 2009. Retrieved 13 June 2008.
  79. ^ a b Gloucestershire – Rooftop-jumping youths arrested Archived 13 February 2008 at the Wayback Machine. BBC. 31 January 2008. Retrieved 15 March 2008.
  80. ^ Gammell, Caroline (6 May 2008). "Gravestone vaulting teenagers condemned over YouTube stunt". The Daily Telegraph. London. Archived from the original on 8 June 2008. Retrieved 13 June 2008.
  81. ^ "Leave No Trace Campaign (practice policy)". Archived from the original on 29 September 2012. Retrieved 18 April 2016.
  82. ^ Bafford, Tenedra (June 2013). "Without a Trace". Vertical Floor Magazine. Archived from the original on 27 April 2016. Retrieved 18 April 2016.
  83. ^ Puddle, Damien (23 July 2014). "New Zealand Parkour Vision and Values" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 21 January 2016. Retrieved 18 April 2016.
  84. ^ Hansen, Jimmy (1 March 2011). "Parkour at UGA". Archived from the original on 14 February 2012. Retrieved 6 June 2011.
  85. ^ "American Parkour leaves Meridian Park when asked during national jam". American Parkour. Archived from the original on 27 September 2013. Retrieved 7 November 2015.
  86. ^ Rawe, Julie (5 April 2008). "Student Stuntmen". Time. Archived from the original on 12 June 2008. Retrieved 13 June 2008.
  87. ^ a b "Youths on Roofs". Your Local Guardian. 2 April 2008. Archived from the original on 12 June 2008. Retrieved 9 August 2009.
  88. ^ Branum, Don (2 June 2008). "Parkour growing by leaps and bounds". Archived from the original on 5 July 2009. Retrieved 27 June 2008.
  89. ^ "Terrible Representation of Parkour and Freerunning". 13 June 2008. Archived from the original on 12 June 2008. Retrieved 13 June 2008.
  90. ^ Comenetz, Jacob (9 June 2005). "Running Through Life the Parkour Way". Deutsche Welle. Archived from the original on 5 July 2015. Retrieved 9 August 2009.
  91. ^ Parkour FAQ for Parents Archived 27 February 2017 at the Wayback Machine Pacific Northwest Parkour Association. 20 September 2008. Retrieved 17 August 2016.
  92. ^ "The Beachcomber : Parkour Legends: Daniel Ilabaca, Tim Shieff, and Oleg Vorslov". Beachcombermb.com. 17 March 2013. Archived from the original on 7 August 2013. Retrieved 22 May 2014.
  93. ^ Puddle, Damien L.; Maulder, Peter S. (1 March 2013). "Ground Reaction Forces and Loading Rates Associated with Parkour and Traditional Drop Landing Techniques". Journal of Sports Science and Medicine. 12 (1): 122–129. PMC 3761764. PMID 24149735. Archived from the original on 10 January 2022. Retrieved 13 December 2020.
  94. ^ Standing, Regan J.; Maulder, Peter S. (24 November 2015). "A Comparison of the Habitual Landing Strategies from Differing Drop Heights of Parkour Practitioners (Traceurs) and Recreationally Trained Individuals". Journal of Sports Science and Medicine. 14 (4): 723–731. PMC 4657414. PMID 26664268. Archived from the original on 10 January 2022. Retrieved 13 December 2020.
  95. ^ Rossheim, ME; Stephenson, CJ (October 2017). "Parkour injuries presenting to United States emergency departments, 2009–2015". The American Journal of Emergency Medicine. 35 (10): 1503–1505. doi:10.1016/j.ajem.2017.04.040. PMID 28455090. S2CID 39559873.
  96. ^ Bane, Colin (8 January 2008). "Jump First, Ask Questions Later". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 7 November 2012. Retrieved 19 April 2008.
  97. ^ "Unmissable new campaign for BBC ONE". BBC Press Office. 11 April 2002. Archived from the original on 5 January 2016. Retrieved 2 December 2015.
  98. ^ Geyh, Paula (July 2006). "Urban Free Flow: A Poetics of Parkour". M/C Journal. 9 (3). doi:10.5204/mcj.2635. Archived from the original on 8 December 2015. Retrieved 2 December 2015.
  99. ^ Hayes, Liz (16 September 2007). "Go Jump". 60 Minutes. Archived from the original on 26 December 2007. Retrieved 3 January 2008.
  100. ^ Thorpe, Holly (2013). International Review for the Sociology of Sport. Sage Publications Inc. p. 5.
  101. ^ Sorcher, Sara (13 October 2010). "Palestinian Parkour". The New York Times (video). Archived from the original on 14 March 2017. Retrieved 10 May 2017.
  102. ^ "Kashmir freerunning: Finding freedom in the art of parkour". BBC News. 7 December 2014. Archived from the original on 18 November 2015. Retrieved 1 December 2015.
  103. ^ a b Barrera, Sandra (2 January 2007). "Parkour: Leaps of faith". Los Angeles Daily News. Archived from the original on 24 February 2007. Retrieved 11 December 2007.
  104. ^ a b Bessaoud, Yuba; Delmar-Morgan, Alex (9 July 2006). "Focus: Look Mum, watch this!". The Times. London. Archived from the original on 29 August 2008. Retrieved 3 January 2008.
  105. ^ Szalai, Georg (28 August 2009). "Fremantle Pacts to Bring Parkour to TV Screens". Reuters. Archived from the original on 1 September 2009. Retrieved 23 September 2009.
  106. ^ Kornblum, Janet (3 December 2007). "'Look, Ma, no hands' – or feet". USA Today. Archived from the original on 20 January 2008. Retrieved 7 December 2007.
  107. ^ Levy, Emanuel (2010). "Prince of Persia: Tackling Stunts and Parkour". Archived from the original on 7 May 2012. Retrieved 10 February 2013.
  108. ^ "Run (2013)". IMDb. Archived from the original on 17 January 2016. Retrieved 13 January 2016.
  109. ^ Gates, Christopher (13 December 2019). "The truth about those parkour scenes in 6 Underground". Looper.com. Archived from the original on 14 December 2019. Retrieved 22 January 2020.
  110. ^ "Ben Hardy talks defying gravity in Michael Bay's latest action-packed thriller, '6 Underground' - Metro US". www.metro.us. 13 December 2019. Archived from the original on 10 January 2022. Retrieved 22 January 2020.
  111. ^ Lalwani, Vickey (18 November 2011). "Aamir Khan learns French technique of Parkour". Mumbai Mirror; The Times of India. Archived from the original on 18 November 2011. Retrieved 24 November 2011.
  112. ^ George, Vijay (25 January 2018). "'Aadhi' packs a punch with parkour". The Hindu. Archived from the original on 9 November 2020. Retrieved 30 January 2018.
  113. ^ "Ultimate Parkour Challenge". MTV. Archived from the original on 7 December 2013.
  114. ^ "John Morrison". WWE. Archived from the original on 13 July 2016. Retrieved 1 December 2011.
  115. ^ Adkins, Greg (31 January 2011). "It's good to be "King"". WWE. Archived from the original on 5 November 2015. Retrieved 31 January 2011.
  116. ^ Wickline, Dan (18 June 2014). "Stephen Amell Back In Training For Arrow Season 3" Archived 9 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine. Bleeding Cool Comic Book, Movie, TV News.
  117. ^ "Kick Ass Caity Lotz From MTV's Death Valley Talks About Zombies, Parcour and Twilight's Jackson Rathbone". Daemon's TV. Archived from the original on 18 September 2011. Retrieved 27 May 2016.
  118. ^ "5 Best Parkour Games of All Time". 26 October 2021. Retrieved 9 May 2021. 'The series itself practically revolves around parkour when it's not trying to shove myths and grave robbing down your throat.'
  119. ^ "Assassin's Creed (Xbox 360)". 28 November 2007. Archived from the original on 1 December 2007. Retrieved 11 December 2007. It's a good start, an excellent free-roaming adventure with some of the best use of parkour yet.
  120. ^ Pearson, Ryan (16 November 2007). "Review: 'Assassin's Creed' Not Quite Perfect". Fox News Channel. Archived from the original on 4 March 2009. Retrieved 23 September 2009. Leave it to the French to bring us the first parkour video game
  121. ^ P., Andrew (January 2008). "Review of Assassin's Creed". Electronic Gaming Monthly. No. 224. p. 89. ... the game features 'a challenging parkour path of escape ...'
  122. ^ Baker, Chris (11 November 2008). "Review: Mirror's Edge, the First-Person Parkour Game You Must Play". Wired. Archived from the original on 24 December 2017. Retrieved 16 June 2017.
  123. ^ Elfman, Doug (28 November 2008). "Mirror's Edge puts grace of parkour at fingertips". Retrieved 23 September 2009.
  124. ^ Nutt, Christian (15 August 2011). "GDC Europe: Perfecting The SMART Parkour Traversal System In Brink". Gamasura. Archived from the original on 8 December 2015. Retrieved 29 November 2015.
  125. ^ Mcaloon, Alissa (13 June 2014). "E3 – Dying Light Hands-On Preview". twinfinite.com. Archived from the original on 20 August 2014. Retrieved 13 June 2014.
  126. ^ Dingman, Hayden (1 March 2015). "Dying Light preview: Zombies are even more stomach-churning in virtual reality". PCWorld. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 1 March 2015.
  127. ^ Shea, Cam (10 January 2007). "10 Reasons to Play Crackdown". Archived from the original on 4 January 2008. Retrieved 3 January 2008. It's part super hero (think Hulk or Neo), part Jumping Flash and part parkour.
  128. ^ Williamson, Steven (8 February 2006). "Tony Hawk's American Wasteland – Xbox 360". Archived from the original on 29 August 2012. Retrieved 10 February 2013. Later on in story mode, you'll even get the chance to learn some parkour skills!
  129. ^ Hedges, Darren (18 May 2010). "Tron Evolution Pre-E3 Hands-On Interview: Alex Peters" (Interview). Interviewed by Ricardo Torres. GameSpot. Archived from the original on 18 May 2013.
  130. ^ Booth, Robert (12 January 2008). "Freerunning goes to war as marines take tips from EZ, Livewire and Sticky". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 17 December 2013. Retrieved 9 August 2009.
  131. ^ "Projects". Colorado Parkour. Archived from the original on 28 August 2009. Retrieved 9 August 2009.
  132. ^ "Parkour: Getting over the wall". US Marine Corps. 23 January 2009. Archived from the original on 14 April 2009. Retrieved 9 August 2009.
  133. ^ Grosprêtre, Sidney; Lepers, Romuold (12 August 2015). "Performance characteristics of Parkour practitioners: Who are the traceurs?". European Journal of Sport Science. 16 (5): 526–535. doi:10.1080/17461391.2015.1060263. PMID 26267256. S2CID 37269563. Archived from the original on 10 January 2022. Retrieved 13 December 2020.
  134. ^ Grosprêtre, Sidney; Ufland, Pierre; Jecker, Daniel (2018). "The adaptation to standing long jump distance in parkour is performed by the modulation of specific variables prior and during take-off". Movement & Sport Sciences - Science & Motricité (100): 27–37. doi:10.1051/sm/2017022. ISSN 2118-5735.
  135. ^ Wakai, Masaki; Linthorne, Nicholas P. (February 2005). "Optimum take-off angle in the standing long jump". Human Movement Science. 24 (1): 81–96. doi:10.1016/j.humov.2004.12.001. PMID 15949583.
  136. ^ Nir, Omer; Gaathon, Adar; Degani, Amir (2017). "Swing leg retraction using virtual apex method for the ParkourBot climbing robot". 2017 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS). IEEE. pp. 3352–3358. doi:10.1109/IROS.2017.8206173. ISBN 978-1-5386-2682-5. S2CID 12291745. Archived from the original on 12 February 2019. Retrieved 24 December 2020.
  137. ^ Yanran, Ding; Chuanzheng, Li; Park, Hae-Won (2020). "Kinodynamic Motion Planning for Multi-Legged Robot Jumping via Mixed-Integer Convex Program". 2020 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS). pp. 3998–4005. arXiv:2011.01809. doi:10.1109/IROS45743.2020.9341572. ISBN 978-1-7281-6212-6. S2CID 226237107.
  138. ^ Simon, Matt (11 October 2018). "Watch Boston Dynamics' Humanoid Robot Do Parkour". Wired magazine. Archived from the original on 12 October 2018. Retrieved 9 November 2018.
  139. ^ Simon, Matt (30 October 2018). "How Boston Dynamics' Robot Videos Became Internet Gold". Wired magazine. Archived from the original on 9 November 2018. Retrieved 9 November 2018.
  140. ^ Edwardes, Dan (2009) The Parkour & Freerunning Handbook. It Books. ISBN 0-06-178367-6. p. 11
  141. ^ a b Foucan, Sébastien (2008). Free Running. Ulysses Press. pp. 8–9. ISBN 978-1-56975-652-2.
  142. ^ a b Angel, p. 39.
  143. ^ Kidder, J. L. (2012). "Parkour, the Affective Appropriation of Urban Space, and the Real/Virtual Dialectic". City & Community. 11 (3): 229–253. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.645.395. doi:10.1111/j.1540-6040.2012.01406.x. S2CID 16058286.

General and cited sources

[edit]
[edit]